Types of Construction Contracts and Bonds

　　建筑合同和擔保的類型

　　? 1 Types of construction Contracts建筑合同的類型

　　There are many types of construction contracts and the owner generally makes the selection of contract type. The type of contract selected depends on the kind of work being performed and the conditions under which it is being performed.

　　建筑合同有許多類型，通常由業(yè)主來選擇合同的類型。合同類型的選擇取決于所執(zhí)行胡工作的種類以及它是在什么樣的條件下執(zhí)行的。

　　? 1.1 Lump Sum Contract總價合同

　　Lump sum contract are typically used for buildings. The quantities of the materials required can be calculated with sufficient accuracy during the bidding process to allow contractor to submit a single lump sum price for the work .The quantity of items such as drywall, door frames, bathroom sinks, electrical conduit and wiring, and roof tiles can be calculated accurately from the plans.

　　總價合同通常使用在建筑領(lǐng)域。在招標過程中要對所需要的材料的數(shù)量進行足夠精確的計算，以使承包人提交出該工作的一個價格總量。每個項目的數(shù)量，例如干式墻、門框、浴室的水池、輸電的管道和線，以及房頂?shù)耐咂夹枰獜挠媱潟r就進行精確的計算。

　　? 1.2 Unit Price Contract單價合同

　　Unit price contract is used in the work in which the total amount of materials necessary are impossible to be accurately calculated. Contractors submit a price for each item on a unit-price contract. Unit prices are multiplied by the engineer’s estimated quantities and totaled. The actual quantity varies from the estimated quantity by more than 15 or 20%,either above or below the estimated quantity, are sometimes subject to renegotiation of the unit price. When the actual quantity is low, the contractor may request a renegotiated higher price because the anticipated amount of earned overhead has been reduced. When the actual quantity is high, the owner may request a renegotiated unit price for the opposite reason. The goal of unit-price contracts is fairness to both parties.

　　單價合同用于不可能對所需的材料總量進行精確估算的工作。承包人提交的是一個單價合同里對每個項目定的價格。單位價格乘以工程師估計的量相差可以超過15%或20%，可能高于或低于估計的量，有時對單位價格還要進行協(xié)商。當實際的量較低時，承包商也許會要求重新確定一個較高的價格，因為預期所掙得的總額減少了。當實際的量較高時，業(yè)主因為相反的原因也許會要求重新定一個價格。單位價格合同的目的是公平地對待合同雙方。

　　1.3 Cost Plus 成本附加

　　Cost plus(cost reimbursable)contracts are used in situations that make it difficult or impossible for either the owner or the contractor to predict their costs during the negotiation, bid, and award process. Factors that may make the calculation of costs impossible include unpredictable and extreme weather conditions such as would be encountered in the Antarctic, unknown transportation requirements to remote locations, combat or war, or contracts where the amount of effort that will be required depends on another contractor’s work.

　　成本附加(可回收費用)合同用于業(yè)主和承包人在談判、投標和授權(quán)的過程中均很難或不可能確定他們成本的情況。有一些因素使得對成本進行計算是不可能的，包括不可預知的極差的天氣情況(例如在南極地帶可能遇到)，偏僻地區(qū)的不可預知的運輸需求，爭斗或戰(zhàn)爭，或者工作量需要依賴其他承包商的工作的合同。

　　Cost plus contracts take many forms, the most common being cost plus a fixed fee and cost plus a percentage. Most owners prefer cost plus fixed fee because then the amount of profit the contractor will earn cannot increase, thereby removing any incentive for the contractor to be anything less than thrifty, or to produce poor-quality work. Cost plus percent contracts may be fair in situations that are very difficult, or when the time to complete the work is not known with any certainty, but some incentives to maintain productivity are needed. A profit that can be earned in six months may not be attractive if there is a possibility that the work may require a year or two.

　　成本附加合同有許多形式，最普通的是正價加固定的附加費以及正價加上正價的一定百分比。大多數(shù)業(yè)主寧愿選擇正價加固定的附加費，因為這樣承包人所獲得的利益總量不可能增加，因此除去了承包人會作出不節(jié)約或生產(chǎn)出較差質(zhì)量工程的任何動機。正價加上正價的一定百分比的合同也許對條件十分艱苦的情況下是十分公平的，或者工程完成的時間不可確定時，但是為了保持生產(chǎn)率作出一些激勵是需要的。如果工程有可能需要一年或兩年，則僅由六個月所掙到的利潤就不再有吸引力了。

　　1.4 Innovations and Trends改革和趨勢

　　 A+B means cost plus time. The Department of Transportation will assign a value to each day the highway work is being performed and the contractors will then bid a price plus a number of days. The low bidder is determined as the low total of the value of cost plus time. It is, of course, very possible to select a low bidder who bids a higher price, but fewer days , than the other contractors.

　　A+B式合同是從歐洲傳過來的相對較新的改革。它們是由運輸局開發(fā)以減少公路建設(shè)的時間以及因此對交通流進行限制的時間。許多公路工程項目包括翻新、修復、改造以及加寬。真正的新建工程很少。A+B合同的目的是提供一種可以付給承包人報酬的方法，考慮補償其定施工順序和分段等方面的專業(yè)性，以使工程可以快速有效地完成。

　　There are other forms of contracts, each with its own specialized purpose. For instance, guaranteed maximum price contracts are sometimes used for negotiated work that is started before the design is complete, making it difficult or impossible for the contractor to estimate the price accurately. This type of contract is also sometimes used when one contractor defaults on a partially complete contract, and a second contractor finishes the project.

　　A+B的意思是成本加上時間。運輸局對每天公路工程完成的數(shù)量進行指定，承包人投標給出的是一定的成本和所需的天數(shù)。以成本加上時間合計較低來確定低投標人。當然也有可能選擇出價較高但是工作天數(shù)較少的低投標人，而不是其它的承包人。

　　合同還有其他一些形式，每個都有它自己專門的目的。例如，擔保最高價格的合同，用在設(shè)計完成前就開始進行談判的使用，這時承包人非常困難或不可能精確的估計出價格。這種形式的合同也經(jīng)常用在一個承包人對只完成了一部分的合同的內(nèi)容沒有履行職責，另一承包人完成了這個工程的情況。

　　2 、訂立合同的方法Contracting methods

　　Contracting methods refers to the contractual arrangements the owner users to procure a project, whereas contract types refer to how the contractor would be paid for performing the work.

　　訂立合同的方法是指業(yè)主為了促成一項工程使用的合同的安排，但是合同形式是指怎樣支付執(zhí)行工程的承包人。

　　2.1 Design-Build設(shè)計建造

　　Design-Build contract are exactly what the name implies. On contractor is responsible for both the design and construction. This type of contracting is growing in popularity. A design-build contract provides distinct advantages to the owner who no longer needs to referee disagreements between the designer and the contractor because they are working together under the sane contract. Design-build contracts are often structured on cost plus with guaranteed maximum price (GMP) basis. Often the savings below the GMP is shared by the owner and contractor.

　　設(shè)計建造合同的意思就是它的名字所表現(xiàn)出來的。一個承包人在設(shè)計和建造上都有責任。這種類型的承包逐漸變得很流行。一個設(shè)計建造合同給業(yè)主提供了明顯的有利條件，他就不必在設(shè)計者和承包人之間意見不合時當調(diào)解人了，因為在同一個合同下他們是在一起工作的。設(shè)計建造合同通常建立在一個成本加上一個對最大花費的擔保(GMP)。

　　2.2 Design-build-operate設(shè)計建造運營合同

　　Design-build-operate are not as common as design-build contracts. They may be used for projects such as athletic arenas, water treatment plants, water purification facilities, and toll highways. The principle is that the contractor will retain some percentage of ownership in the facility, up to 100%, for a specified period of time, and operate the facility for a profit during that time to recoup the capital investment (total cost plus profit). The period of ownership by the contractor may vary from a few years to permanent. During the period of ownership, the contractor is responsible for all costs of ownership, and all profits resulting from ownership. In the case of athletic arenas, there is typically a revenue-or profit-sharing agreement with the team ownership or municipality.

　　設(shè)計建造運營合同并不象設(shè)計建造合同那樣常見。它們用于一些工程中，例如運動競技場、水處理廠、水凈化設(shè)施以及公路收費站。其原理是對于一個特定的時期內(nèi)，承包人保持對設(shè)施的部分所有權(quán)，可以達到100%，在那段時間對設(shè)施進行運營一定利益來對投資資金(全部花費加上利潤)進行補償。承包人擁有所有權(quán)的期限可以從幾年變化到永久性使用。在擁有所有權(quán)的期間，承包人以業(yè)主的身份對所有花費負責，并接受所有的利潤。

　　3 Bonds (Guarantees) 擔保(保證)

　　In any bond there are three parties-the principal (contractor), the surety (bonding company) and the obligee (owner). The surety and the principal make a joint and several guarantee to the owner, that is both parties are obligated to the owner.

　　任何一個合同都有三方的當事人責任人(承包人)、擔保人(公司擔保)以及債權(quán)人(業(yè)主)。擔保人和責任人形成一個聯(lián)合體對業(yè)主作出一些擔保，也就是這兩個當事人對業(yè)主均亦責任。

　　3.1 Bid Bonds投標擔保

　　Bid bonds have two purposes: (1) to guarantee the contractor will enter into a contract if determined to be the lowest responsible bidder and (2) to guarantee the contractor will provide the required payment and performance bonds, and insurance policies. When the performance and payment bonds have been submitted, the contractor is released from the bid bond obligations.

　　Most bid bonds are what we a limiting amount.

　　投標擔保有兩個目的：(1)如果決定了最低的責任投標人則要保證承包人簽定合同，(2)保證承包人會提供必需的報酬并且執(zhí)行擔保，以及保險方針。當提交了履約擔保和支付報酬的擔保，承包人就解除了對投標合同的義務。

　　3.2 Performance Bonds履約擔保

　　Performance Bonds guarantee the performance of the contract requirements at the stated bid price. In effect, the surety is saying it guarantees the performance of the contractor, or it will complete the project as described in the plans and specifications. The surety is in the position of being asked to guarantee the contractor’s performance. Therefore, the contractor must demonstrate an ability to perform before the surety is willing to issue payment and performance bonds. The surety will visit the contractor’s home office and job sites, and will contact the owners of recently completed contracts.

　　履約擔保保證在申明的投標價格下執(zhí)行合同所需要胡內(nèi)容。實際上，擔保人會對合同的履行進行擔保，或則會按照設(shè)計圖和說明書描述的形式來完成工程。擔保人處在被要求對合同的執(zhí)行進行擔保的位置。因此，在擔保人樂于發(fā)給報酬和執(zhí)行擔保之前，承包人必須證明他有完成任務的能力。擔保人會參觀承包人的總公司以及工作地，并且會接觸業(yè)主最近完成的合同。

　　Contractors must develop a long-standing working relationship with their surety, and they must learn to present their company in its most favorable light when applying for payment and performance bonds. They must work consistently with a surety who will underwrite projects with specific constraints of project type, location, and size. If a contractor defaults on performance of the contract, the surety who will underwrite projects with specific constraints of project type, location, and size .if a contractor defaults on performance of the contract, the surety has three basic choices:

　　承包人必須與他們的擔保人發(fā)展一個長期存在的工作關(guān)系，當他們申請報酬和申請履約擔保時，他們與擔保人必須保持始終如一的工作關(guān)系，因為擔保人在工程類型、位置和尺寸上有特殊約束情況下會承諾支付費用的。如果承包人執(zhí)行合同時沒有履行義務，則擔保人有三個基本的選擇：

　　(1) Buy back the bond. This amounts to giving he owner a check for the amount of the penal value of the bonds.

　　(2) Replace the contractor. Negotiate or advertise for bids for the purpose of retaining another contractor to finish the work.

　　(3) Finance the contractor. The bonding company runs the risk of spending more than the value of the bond, but this is still a common option because the contractor is familiar with the project.

　　Today most sureties try to replace the contractor.

　　(1)買回擔保。讓業(yè)主對擔保處罰的數(shù)量進行檢查。

　　(2)更換承包人。為了保證另一個承包人能夠完成這項工作，要進行投標協(xié)協(xié)商或登出投標廣告。

　　(3)為承包人提供經(jīng)費。擔保的公司有花費高于擔保價值的風險，但是這仍然是一個共同的選擇，因為承包人對工程是熟悉的。

　　現(xiàn)今大多數(shù)擔保人都會努力嘗試更換承包人。

　　3.3 Payment Bonds支付擔保

　　The Miller Act of 1935 provides that on federal projects over $200,000,the contractor must furnish payment and performance bonds in a satisfactory amount. Most states have passed Little Miller Act legislation. Government agencies require bonds because contractors cannot place a lien on government-owned property. The Miller Act and state-level Little Miller Acts provide the mechanism to guarantee the performance of the general contractor, and that the subcontracors, labor, and suppliers will be paid.

　　1935年的Miller Act 供應給聯(lián)邦工程超過200 000美元，承包人必須提供報酬，擔保的執(zhí)行達到了一個滿意的程度。大多數(shù)州都通過了Little Miller Act 的立法。政府機構(gòu)需要擔保，因為承包人不能對政府所有的財產(chǎn)寄予擁有留置權(quán)的希望。 Miller Act以及州級的Little Miller Acts提供了對總承包人，以及次承包者、勞動者以及供應商擔保的機制，使得他們都可以獲得酬金。